ABSTRACT

Ethiopia has confirmed its first outbreak of Marburg virus disease in Jinka, South Omo Zone, reporting nine confirmed cases and three fatalities to date (WHO AFRO, 2025; Al Jazeera, 2025). This event underscores the critical importance of strengthening veterinary systems, establishing a coordinated One Health framework, and enhancing continuous wildlife-based surveillance.

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the WHO, 60% of known human infectious diseases and approximately 75% of emerging infections are zoonotic in origin, meaning that animals serve as the major reservoirs of new and re-emerging pathogens (Jones et al., 2008; WHO). Among the most lethal are viral haemorrhagic fevers (VHFs), including Marburg, Ebola, and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF). Clinical manifestations typically involve high fever, severe headache, myalgia, haemorrhage, multi-organ failure, and often death.

Ecological disruptions—including habitat loss, deforestation, and agricultural expansion—bring humans into closer contact with wildlife reservoirs such as bats, rodents, and non-human primates, thereby increasing opportunities for viral spillover (Plowright et al., 2017).Domestic animals can serve as carrier hosts of these viruses, amplifying them and enabling them to adapt to human hosts (Lloyd-Smith et al., 2009). Human-to-human transmission can happen when these viruses reach the human population, particularly in environments with weak infection control.

Furthermore, reports of recent outbreaks of similar viruses have come from Uganda, which confirmed an epidemic of Sudan virus disease (SVD), a form of Ebola, with 14 cases (12 confirmed, 2 probable) and 4 fatalities, resulting in a case fatality ratio of about 29% (WHO, 2025c). The outbreak was formally declared over in late April following two full incubation periods (42 days), with the last case testing negative on March 14 (WHO, 2025d). Additionally, a new Ebola outbreak was reported in Kasai Province in September 2025, with 28 suspected cases and 15 recorded deaths, including medical personnel (WHO, 2025e). The COVID-19 pandemic, which was brought on by SARS-CoV-2, also started in wildlife and spread to people, demonstrating that the zoonotic risks posed by these emerging diseases should not be neglected (Tan, Yong & Shu, 2024). Thus, protecting animal health is not only an agricultural concern but a fundamental pillar of global health security.

• THE MARBURG OUTBREAK IN ETHIOPIA

The Marburg virus causes a severe and highly fatal haemorrhagic disease. Humans typically contract the virus from exposure to infected fruit bats, and secondary transmission occurs through direct contact with contaminated materials or bodily fluids from infected individuals (Kebede et al., 2021). Early clinical symptoms include high fever, severe headache, myalgia, and profound fatigue, with many patients developing haemorrhagic manifestations within 5–7 days of symptom onset. There is currently no approved antiviral treatment or licensed vaccine available for Marburg virus disease; however, several therapeutic candidates are undergoing clinical evaluation. On the other hand, early access to supportive care and therapy, such as intravenous or oral fluid rehydration and symptom management, has been observed to increase survival (WHO AFRO, 2025).

On 14 November 2025, the Ethiopian Ministry of Health confirmed an outbreak of Marburg virus disease in Jinka, a remote town in the South Omo Zone (WHO AFRO, 2025). Nine laboratory-confirmed cases have been reported, and genomic sequencing conducted by the Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) identified the strain as closely related to the East African Marburg lineages (WHO AFRO, 2025). Three deaths have been recorded to date (Al Jazeera, 2025).Health authorities have launched an immediate response and were able to trace and isolate over 200 contacts. Simultaneously, community outreach is also underway, especially among pastoralist and wildlife-exposed communities, emphasizing key prevention messages such as avoiding bat caves, using safe burial practices, and reporting unusual illness in humans or animals (AP News, 2025).         

Ecologically, this outbreak is particularly concerning because Rousettus aegyptiacus, the primary reservoir host for the Marburg virus, is widespread in the region. Anecdotal reports suggest that local communities frequently access nearby caves inhabited by bat colonies, creating a direct risk pathway for viral spillover.(Kebede et al., 2021). Previous outbreaks and isolated cases have been documented in Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Equatorial Guinea, Rwanda, South Africa, and Uganda. In early 2025, the Kagera region of northwest Tanzania saw an outbreak of Marburg virus disease, with two confirmed and eight probable cases — all of whom died, giving a 100% case fatality rate (WHO, 2025a). The outbreak was declared over in March after 42 days with no new confirmed cases following the last death on 28 January (WHO, 2025b). Surveillance and contact tracing involved over 270 people (WHO, 2025a).

• WHY ZOONOSES ARE A GROWING THREAT

Multiple converging drivers contribute to zoonotic spillover. Land-use changes—such as deforestation, infrastructure expansion, and pastoral development—disrupt ecological barriers that traditionally separate wildlife from human populations (Plowright et al., 2017). Climate change further alters vector ecology and expands the geographic range of reservoir species such as bats and rodents, increasing opportunities for cross-species transmission (Lafferty, 2009).

From a biological standpoint, bats function as ideal long-term reservoir hosts because their immune systems can tolerate high viral loads without exhibiting clinical disease (Brook & Dobson, 2015). High mutation rates in RNA viruses—such as coronaviruses and filoviruses—enhance their capacity to cross species barriers and adapt to new hosts (Domingo & Holland, 1997). Additionally, arthropod vectors such as ticks and mosquitoes create ecological transmission bridges, facilitating spread among animals and humans.

The economic burden of zoonotic diseases is substantial. The COVID-19 pandemic alone resulted in trillions of dollars in global economic losses, while endemic zoonoses impose ongoing costs through livestock mortality, reduced productivity, trade limitations, and increased healthcare expenditure (World Bank, 2018). In Ethiopia, where livestock plays a central role in national food security and rural livelihoods, limited veterinary capacity poses a dual threat to both animal health and human pandemic preparedness.

• THE CRITICAL ROLE OF ANIMAL-HEALTH SYSTEMS

When it comes to stopping the spread of zoonotic diseases, managing outbreaks, and organizing One Health initiatives, veterinarians and animal health specialists are the first line of defence. They are involved in public education, outbreak investigations, surveillance, and laboratory diagnostics.

Veterinarians often detect early warning signs—such as unusual morbidity or mortality in livestock or wildlife—and initiate rapid field investigations to identify emerging pathogens (Unique Scientific Publishers, 2023). They implement key biosecurity measures including quarantine protocols, hygiene and disinfection practices, safe carcass disposal, and movement control (RROIJ, 2021). Veterinarians help farmers and herders in rural and pastoral areas by educating them about potential hazards, encouraging hygienic practices, discouraging contact with wildlife, and supporting immunization efforts (where appropriate).

Another crucial area is laboratory capability. For integrated outbreak response, veterinary labs must collaborate with human health laboratories and possess molecular diagnostics (such as PCR) to identify zoonotic agents in animal samples. A comprehensive approach to research and control is ensured by including veterinarians in One Health task forces (Preprints.org, 2024).

Therefore, Ethiopia—and similar high-risk settings—must invest in enhanced wildlife and livestock surveillance, strengthen veterinary diagnostic infrastructure, and build structured cross-sector coordination between veterinary, environmental, and public-health systems to achieve robust zoonotic preparedness.

• PREVENTION AND CONTROL STRATEGIES: FROM ONE-HEALTH PERSPECTIVE

A comprehensive One Health strategy to prevent and control zoonotic VHFs should incorporate the following components:

Ecological surveillance: Routine sampling of bat populations and high-risk species, along with predictive modeling utilizing GIS and genomic techniques (Golchin et al., 2023).

Community engagement: Health communication initiatives specifically designed for pastoralists and populations exposed to bats, with a focus on safe animal handling, minimizing contact with wildlife, and prompt reporting of disease (RROIJ, 2021).

Veterinary biosecurity: Applying quarantine procedures, changing animal housing, requiring animal handlers to wear personal protective equipment, and disposing of animal waste and carcasses safely.

Laboratory strengthening: To identify zoonotic agents early, animal laboratories should develop or enhance their diagnostic capabilities of zoonoses and integrate them with national public health labs.

One Health coordination: Creating official, cross-ministerial, cross-disciplinary teams (public health authorities, ecologists, and veterinarians) to exchange surveillance data, organize outbreak drills, and create cooperative protocols.

Expanding rapid response capacity: Strengthening emergency response systems through trained field teams, mobile diagnostic laboratories, and pre-positioned medical and veterinary supplies to enable rapid containment and reduce transmission during zoonotic emergencies.

• CONCLUSION

The Marburg outbreak in Jinka is more than an acute public-health disaster — it is a stark reminder of the delicate balance between humans, wildlife, and domestic animals. Zoonoses are no longer hypothetical threats; they are recurrent, accelerating, and deeply embedded within ecological and socio-economic systems.Strengthening animal health systems, empowering veterinarians, and ensuring a strong One Health coordination are not optional solutions, they are essential to prevent future pandemics, protect livelihoods, and safeguard global health Protecting animal health is protecting human health, and empowering veterinarians is an investment in global pandemic resilience.

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